Name - Bhatt Dhara J
Roll no: - 2
M.A.Part-2 - Sem-4
Paper - 02, Ec-402
Paper name - English teaching
Language- 2
Topic for Assignment - Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
Submitted To: Dr.Dilipsir Barad
Department of English,
Bhavnagar university,
Bhavnagar.
Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL)
v Introduction
In the second half of the 20th century, education technologies were one of the most developed areas in the world. Computers, which have entered the school life in the late 1950s in developed countries, are still developing day by day throughout the world. Today, they have become more powerful, faster, easier to use, more convenient and cheaper, and they can process and store much more data, as well. Equipment such as hard disks, CDROMs, laser disks and printers used with computers has also developed rapidly. Using these, a computer program can handle sound, pictures and video along with characters.
At the end of the 20th century; the computer-mediated' communication and the Internet have reshaped the use of computers for language learning. Computers are no longer a tool for only information processing and display but also a tool for information processing and communication. Learners of language, with the help of the Internet, can now simultaneously communicate with others or speakers of the target language all over the world. Nonetheless, As Dhaif (1989) claims computers can never replace the 'live' teacher, especially in language teaching, where the emphasis is on mutual communication between people. It can just play a role in teaching the second or foreign language as an aid to the teacher.
Today, there is huge amount of foreign language materials next to the traditional grammar book and dictionary. These materials include-course books, workbooks, programmed courses, cue carts, charts, newspapers, posters, picture cards, and cut outs, and so on. These are supplemented by other media, such as radio, television, slides, OHP, video tapes, games, toys, realia, as well as computers, multi media and the Internet.
The language laboratories which were found in the 1970s under the influence of the Audio-lingual Method have given room to computer assisted language learning (CALL) work stations. "Micro computers used as word processors complement the audio facilities, enabling the interactive teaching of all four language skills reading, listening, speaking and writing". (Crystal, 1987: 377). Crystal further adds that today a great variety of FLT exercises, such as sentence restructuring, checking of spelling, checking of translations, or dictation tasks, and cloze tests can be computationally controlled" using texts displayed on the screen.
Recent years have shown a boom of interest in using computers for foreign language teaching and learning. A decade ago, the use of computers in the language classroom was of concern only to a small number of specialists in western countries. However, with the advent of multimedia computing and the Internet, the role of computers in language instruction has now become an important issue confronting large numbers of language teachers throughout the world.
To be realistic, although most teachers throughout the world still use chalk and blackboard, CALL is used routinely in language instruction in highly developed countries, such as the USA, Japan, and Western European countries including Turkey to provide supplementary practice in the four skills writing, reading, speaking and listening, as well as grammar and problem solving. Though, as Chappell points, "instructors need to understand how CALL can best be used to offer effective instruction to language learners" (1990: 199).
v The Computer
Computer is a device that processes information with great speed and accuracy. Computers process information by helping to create the information itself, by displaying, storing, recognizing, and communicating information to other computers. In general they process numbers, words, still or moving pictures, and sounds.
The computer has changed the way people work, learn, communicate, and play. It is used by students, teachers, and research scientists as a learning tool all over the world, as well as by individuals at home to study, work and entertain.
In Encarta Encyclopedia (2000) it is recorded that the first electronic digital computer was developed by the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumann to solve problems in mathematics, meteorology, economics, and hydrodynamics. Then, the American physicist John Mauchly proposed the electronic digital computer called ENIAC and build it with the American engineer J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. ENIAC which is completed in 1945 is regarded as the first successful, general digital computer. However, it weighed more than 27,000 kg and contained more than 18,000 vacuum tubes. The computer's vacuum tubes were replaced by a team of six technicians each month and it had to be reprogrammed for each task. ENIAC initially was used for military purposes. Fortunately, the technology of computer hardware, the physical parts of computer systems, has advanced tremendously since then. Today a single microprocessor of approximately 2 kg can do the same work as that pioneering machine (Snyder: 2000, in Encarta Encyclopedia).
On the other hand, the programs that run the computer are called Software. Software, is the set of instructions a computer uses to manipulate data, such as a word processing, (e.g., to write a letter), program or a video game. These programs are usually stored and transferred via the computer's hardware to and from the CPU. The interaction between the input and output hardware is controlled by software called the Basic Input Output System software (BIOS). Software programs are loaded on either disks or CDROMs (compact discs). There is a big variety of readymade language learning software in the market today. Some of these are WIDA; Oxford advanced Leaner's Dictionary on CDROM, Learn to Speak English, Encarta Encyclopedia and many more.
ð What is the Role of the Computer in Teaching?
The computer is a human made tool which is incapable of action. That is, it has no inborn wisdom, no initiative and inherent ability to learn or to teach. It will perform, with remarkable speed, the instructions exactly given to it by a human user. Thus, the computer is 'the servant of the user' and it should not be forgotten that its role in teaching is solely a teaching aid. Consequently, it is dependent on the teacher in many ways: for example, it is unable to create educational materials without the teacher. All the linguistic material and instructions for its presentation must be specified by the teacher. It is the teacher who decides what degree of control the computer will have in her/his classes. Hence, as Brierley & Kemble (1991) state there is no need for teachers to feel threatened to lose their professions to the computer.
The computer can be situated. in the classroom, in a special laboratory (CALL, laboratory), in a specially designed area of a library or in any convenient location where the student, or small groups of students can work uninterruptedly (Ahmed, Corbett, Rogers & Sussex: 1985). It can be used as the mainstay of a course, or back up, revision, reinforcement, extension, and so on. It may communicate with the student visually by displaying text, graphics or video images on a screen; it can also present sound in the form of speech, music or other audio-output. The most common means of communication with the computer is by clicking on icons with the mouse or by typing commands and responses at a keyboard (Higgins: 1995). As a result, unique combinations of interactive and visual capabilities, computers have a beneficial effect on learner motivation.
v Computer Assisted and Language Learning (CALL)
The abbreviation CALL stands for Computer Assisted Language Learning. It is a term used by teachers and students to describe the use of computers as part of a language course. (Hardisty & Windeatt: 1989). It is traditionally described as a means of 'presenting, reinforcing and testing' particular language items. The learner is first presented with a rule and some examples, and then answers a series of questions which test her/his knowledge of the rule and the computer gives appropriate feedback and awards a mark, which may be stored for later inspection for the teacher. Jones & Fortescue (1987) indicate that the traditional description of CALL is unfortunate and they present the computer as flexible classroom aid, which can be used by teachers and learners, in and out of class, in a variety of ways and for a variety of purposes. However, work with the computer, as any other teaching aid, needs to be linked with ordinary classroom work and CALL lessons, like the other lessons, need to be planned carefully.
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v The History of CALL
Although computers have been used since the first half of the 20th century, they were not used for educational purposes until the 1960s. The 1970s witnessed the evolution of CALL as a result of development in research related to the use of computers for linguistic purposes and for creating suitable language learning conditions. In America the computer based introductory courses in the 1960s were pioneering projects in CALL, and were referred to as computer Assisted Instruction (CAl) The 1980s have witnessed the spread of computers both in educational institutions and in people's homes. Since the beginning of the '80s computers have also found their way into many schools. CALL software has also become more readily available on the market (Ittelson: 2000).
The emergence of inexpensive computer technology and mass storage media, including optical videodiscs and compact disks, has given instructional technologists better tools to work with. Compact disks are used to store large amounts of data, such as encyclopedias or motion pictures. In CALL centers with computers and software such as CD-ROM, CD-I, or videodiscs, a student who is interested in a particular topic can first scan an electronic encyclopedia, then view a film on the subject or look at related topics at the reach of a button. Thus, such learning centers present students with the advantages of reference materials and popularize computer-aided instruction. The computer laboratory has become an integral component of foreign-language programs in most educational institutions (Hardisty & Windeatt: 1989).
Computers have been used for language teaching for more than three decades. According to Warschauer & Healey (1998) the history of CALL can be divided into three stages: behaviouristic CALL, communicative CALL and integrative CALL.
Each stage corresponds to a certain pedagogical approach.
ð Behaviouristic CALL
It was formed in the late 1960s and used widely in the 1970s under the influence of Audio-lingual teaching method. In this stage of CALL, repetitive language drills, referred to as drill-and practice were used. The computer was seen as a mechanical tutor who never allowed students to work at an individual pace, which hindered motivation. Further, it included extensive drills, grammatical explanations and translation at various intervals (Warschauer & Healey 1998).
ð Communicative CALL
It was the period of the 1980s. This period was the time that behaviouristic approach to language teaching was being rejected at both theoretical and pedagogical level, and also personal computers were creating greater possibilities for individual work at school. Communicative CALL corresponded to cognitive theories which stressed that learning was a process of discovery, expression and development. Under the influence of Communicative Language Teaching defendants of communicative CALL argued that computer based activities should focus more on using forms. Software developed in this period included text reconstruction program and simulations. In communicative CALL, the focus was not so much on what students did with the computer, but rather what they did with each other while working at the computer.
ð Interactive CALL
By the 1990s communicative CALL began to be criticized. New second language acquisition theories and socio-cognitive views influenced many teachers and lead them to use more social and learner-centered methods. This time, emphasis was put on language use in authentic social contexts. Task-based, project-based and content-based approaches all sought to integrate learners in authentic environments, and also to integrate the various skills of language learning and use. In integrative approaches, students are enabled to use a variety of technological tools as an ongoing process of language learning and use rather than visiting the computer lab once a week basis for isolated exercises.
v Fluency and accuracy practice
One of the characteristics of many CALL programs is that the students have to pronounce or type in exactly the answer the computer expects because the computer can only accept the answers it has been programmed to accept. This limitation is very useful in practice because it provides motivation for the students to use the language as accurately as possible.
v Computer-work, pre-computer work and post-computer work
There are three stages in CALL activities:
a) Pre-computer work before students make use of the machines;
b) Work done at the computer;
c ) Post-computer work done away from the computer (Hardisty and Windeatt: 1989).
v CALL AND LANGUAGE SKILLS
Computers offer learners various activities for developing different language skills. They can provide a useful and motivating medium for both integrated skills and separate activities. Warschauer & Healey (1998) describe them as follows:
ð Reading Skills
There are three main ways in which computers are useful in helping language learners develop reading skills.
a) Incidental reading. Most of the CALL programs, whether oriented towards reading or not, involve the learner in reading text for the successful completion of the activity.
b) Reading comprehension. Traditional question and answer CALL programs are used for reading comprehension as well as grammar and vocabulary development.
c) Text manipulation. There are a number of ways in which computers can manipulate continuous text which involve the learner in close study of the content and structure of the text. An example might be shadow reading which provides students with authentic texts. Additionally, sentence structure, speed reading and cloze-reading are some of the alternative ways of developing reading skills. An example for software matching activity might be the JMS Newline activity: 'Match the slang words with their definitions'. Another activity might be JMS Newline Software: Speed Practice Reading Comprehension activity (Sperling, 1998).
ð Writing Skills
The Word Processing program is one of the most common purposes for which computers are used and it is regarded as the most powerful to use when starting to work with CALL. In order to use word processors learners have to be familiar to the keyboard of the computer and they also have to learn the following before using the computer:
· Learn how to start a word processor
· Learn how to delete and insert a letter, a word or a larger chunk of text
· Learn how to save text
· Print a text
· Moving words, lines, sentences, etc. around.
Word-processing programs transform the computer into a sophisticated and flexible writing aid that can improve learners' writing skills and their attitude toward writing. The main principle of word-processing programs is based on the ability to manipulate text freely. By writing text into the memory of a computer, the writer can play round with his text until entirely satisfied. The word-processor provides useful practice for guided and free writing.
Vocabulary, grammar, punctuation and reading tests have an obvious relevance to the sub-skills that are needed for writing (Duber: 2000). By providing something to write about, the computer stimulates both writing and speaking. An example might be the following activity from the Redhouse Dictionary CD-ROM: 'Put the jumbled idioms in order and write them in your notebook'.
ð Speaking Skills
Oral communication is very important in language learning process. In today's language "classrooms, considerable emphasis is given to oral activities in which learners use the language they have learned to communicate with each other. These activities include simulations, role-plays and discussion. Computer simulations provide a stimulus for such a work, as they offer both a focus for oral activity and a continually changing scenario for learners to talk about. Computers have a useful contribution to the development of oral skills if they are used wisely (Hammersmith: 1998).
Dialogue studies can be made by the computers with the aid of the movies; students watching these dialogues can see the conversation, setting and cultural atmosphere clearly. They can also see the body movements and the semiotic background of the conversations and earn a powerful experience and thus improve their communicative competence. These all pave the way to their communicative performances through reinforcing their accuracy, intelligibility and fluency.
The main advantage of computer simulations is that they are very motivating. They give learners instant feedback on the effects of their decisions, and this feedback itself stimulates arguments and comments, suggestions and counter suggestions. An activity for improving listening and speaking skills might be a listening activity from 'Learn to Speak English Software I': Spoken English Demo: Communication Skills.
ð Listening Skills
Listening activities that use the computer are more complex than the other kinds of CALL materials since they involve equipment other than the computer itself. One of the simplest ways of giving practice in listening comprehension is to use a multiple-choice or fill-in program in conjunction with a cassette recorder or the latest multimedia containing a recorder. In addition to the normal feedback given after a wrong answer, the computer can let the learner hear the relevant part of the tape again. If a separate cassette recorder is used, the error message can give the learner appropriate counter numbers. Another simple technique is to use a tape with a test-reconstruction program which enables learners to reconstruct a summary of a recorded anecdote on screen by the help of the tape.
Such activities not only help to integrate listening and writing skills but also evaluate learners' listening comprehension skills in a more active way than is generally possible in a non-CALL class (Jones & Fortescue: 1987). An activity for improving listening skills might be a listening activity from 'JMS Newline Software', The Listening Leaner: Listening Comprehension, Spoken English.
v Conclusion
The role of computer in language teaching has changed signified in the last three decades previously; computers used in language teaching were limited to text. The computer is a mechanical device which can be used well or badly. The use of computers is compatible with a variety of approaches, methods and techniques of learning and teaching.
